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int position = 0; char **tokens = malloc(bufsize * sizeof(char *)); char *token; if (!tokens) { perror("allocation error"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } token = strtok(line, TOKEN_DELIMITERS); while (token != NULL) { tokens[position++] = token; // Reallocate if needed if (position >= bufsize) { bufsize += 64; tokens = realloc(tokens, bufsize * sizeof(char *)); if (!tokens) { perror("allocation error"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } } token = strtok(NULL, TOKEN_DELIMITERS); } tokens[position] = NULL; // NULL-terminate return tokens; } /** * Advanced tokenizer supporting quotes. * Handles: "quoted strings" and 'single quotes' */ char **parse_line_advanced(char *line) { int bufsize = 64; int position = 0; char **tokens = malloc(bufsize * sizeof(char *)); char *ptr = line; char *token_start; char quote_char = 0; while (*ptr) { // Skip whitespace while (*ptr && isspace(*ptr)) ptr++; if (!*ptr) break; // Check for quotes if (*ptr == '"' || *ptr == '\'') { quote_char = *ptr++; token_start = ptr; while (*ptr && *ptr != quote_char) ptr++; if (*ptr == quote_char) { *ptr++ = '\0'; // Terminate token } } else { token_start = ptr; while (*ptr && !isspace(*ptr)) ptr++; if (*ptr) *ptr++ = '\0'; } tokens[position++] = strdup(token_start); if (position >= bufsize) { bufsize += 64; tokens = realloc(tokens, bufsize * sizeof(char *)); } } tokens[position] = NULL; return tokens; }72:T73e,#include #include #include #include #include #include /** * Execute an external command using fork/exec. * Returns 1 to continue shell, 0 to exit. */ int execute_external(char **args) { pid_t pid, wpid; int status; pid = fork(); if (pid == 0) { // ========== CHILD PROCESS ========== // This is where we set up redirections, pipes, etc. // before replacing ourselves with the target program. // Execute the command if (execvp(args[0], args) == -1) { // execvp only returns on error fprintf(stderr, "mysh: %s: %s ", args[0], strerror(errno)); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } // Unreachable if exec succeeds exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } else if (pid < 0) { // ========== FORK ERROR ========== perror("mysh: fork"); return 1; } else { // ========== PARENT PROCESS ========== // Wait for the child to complete do { wpid = waitpid(pid, &status, WUNTRACED); } while (!WIFEXITED(status) && !WIFSIGNALED(status)); } return 1; } /** * Execute command - handles builtins and external commands. */ int execute_command(char **args) { if (args[0] == NULL) { return 1; // Empty command } // Check for built-in commands first if (strcmp(args[0], "exit") == 0) { return 0; // Signal to exit shell } if (strcmp(args[0], "cd") == 0) { if (args[1] == NULL) { // cd with no args goes to HOME chdir(getenv("HOME")); } else { if (chdir(args[1]) != 0) { perror("mysh: cd"); } } return 1; } // External command return execute_external(args); }73:T77f,#include #include #include #include #include /** * Execute command with I/O redirection. * * Supports: * command > file (redirect stdout, overwrite) * command >> file (redirect stdout, append) * command < file (redirect stdin) * command 2> file (redirect stderr) */ int execute_with_redirection(char **args, char *input_file, char *output_file, int append_mode) { pid_t pid = fork(); if (pid == 0) { // ========== CHILD: Set up redirections ========== // Input redirection: command < file if (input_file != NULL) { int fd_in = open(input_file, O_RDONLY); if (fd_in < 0) { perror("mysh: input redirection"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } // Replace stdin (fd 0) with our file dup2(fd_in, STDIN_FILENO); close(fd_in); // Close original fd } // Output redirection: command > file or >> file if (output_file != NULL) { int flags = O_WRONLY | O_CREAT; flags |= append_mode ? 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Understanding it deeply is essential for shell implementation:\n\n**fork()** — Creates an exact copy of the current process\n- Parent receives child's PID\n- Child receives 0\n- Both continue from the same point\n\n**exec()** — Replaces current process with a new program\n- Process identity (PID) is preserved\n- Memory is replaced with new program\n- File descriptors remain (unless marked close-on-exec)\n\n**Why this two-step model?**\n\nBetween `fork()` and `exec()`, the child can modify its environment—set up redirections, close files, change directories—before loading the new program. This separation enables the shell's powerful I/O manipulation."},"type":"text"},{"data":{"fileName":"execute.c","languages":[{"code":"$72","label":"C","value":"c"}]},"type":"code"},{"data":{"icon":"AlertCircle","title":"Critical: Built-in Commands Cannot Fork","content":"Commands like `cd`, `exit`, and `export` MUST run in the shell process itself, not in a child. If `cd` ran in a forked child, only the child's working directory would change—the shell would remain unchanged. This is why shells distinguish 'built-in' from external commands.","variant":"warning"},"type":"callout"}],"titleType":"number","titleNumber":3},{"id":"io-redirection","title":"I/O Redirection Implementation","content":[{"data":{"content":"I/O redirection is one of Unix's most powerful features. The key insight: **file descriptors are inherited across fork() and preserved across exec()**.\n\nTo redirect:\n1. Fork the child process\n2. In the child, **before exec()**, manipulate file descriptors\n3. Use `dup2()` to copy file descriptors to stdin/stdout/stderr\n4. 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The command `ls | grep foo | wc -l` creates a pipeline of three processes, each feeding into the next.\n\n**The pipe() system call** creates a unidirectional communication channel:\n- Returns two file descriptors: `pipefd[0]` for reading, `pipefd[1]` for writing\n- Data written to `pipefd[1]` can be read from `pipefd[0]`\n- When all write ends are closed, readers get EOF"},"type":"text"},{"data":{"fileName":"pipe_exec.c","languages":[{"code":"$74","label":"C","value":"c"}]},"type":"code"},{"data":{"icon":"AlertCircle","title":"Critical: Close Unused Pipe Ends","content":"You MUST close unused pipe ends in both parent and children. If the parent keeps the write end open, the reader will never receive EOF and will hang forever. 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